Livestock and Water
AS-954, July 1999
Greg Lardy, Beef Cattle Specialist
Charles Stoltenow, Extension Veterinarian
Water is an important but often overlooked nutrient for livestock.
Water makes up over 98 percent of all molecules in the body and is necessary for
regulation of body temperature, growth, reproduction, lactation, digestion, lubrication of
joints, eyesight, and as a cleansing agent.
Water Intake
Before discussing water quality, it is important to know how much water animals
require. Water requirements are influenced by several factors, including rate of gain,
pregnancy, lactation, activity, type of diet, feed intake, and environmental temperature.
These requirements are met by water consumed from wells, ponds, fountains, etc., as well
as moisture found in feedstuffs.
Table 1 lists estimated water intakes for lactating beef cows, dry beef cows, and
bulls. Table 2 lists estimated water intakes for growing and finishing beef cattle. Water
requirements of cattle can also be estimated based on ambient temperatures and feed intake
(Table 3). Table 4 lists the water requirements for sheep. Table 5 lists recommended water
intakes for dairy cattle. Table 6 lists the water requirements for swine. Table 7 lists
the water requirements for horses.
Table 1. Estimated daily water intakes (gallons per head per day) for lactating beef cows,
bred cows, dry cows, and bulls.
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Dry Cows,
Monthly Lactating Bred Cows,
Month Average Temp Cows and Heifers Bulls
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(�F) - - gallons per head per day - -
January 36 11.0 6.0 7.0
February 40 11.5 6.0 8.0
March 50 12.5 6.5 8.6
April 64 15.5 8.0 10.5
May 73 17.0 9.0 12.0
June 78 17.5 10.0 13.0
July 90 16.5 14.5 19.0
August 88 16.5 14.0 18.0
September 78 17.5 10.0 13.0
October 68 16.5 8.5 11.5
November 52 13.0 6.5 9.0
December 38 11.0 6.0 7.5
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Adapted from GPE-1400, Water Requirements for Beef Cattle.
Table 2. Water requirements of growing and finishing beef cattle (gallons per head per
day).
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Growing Cattle Finishing Cattle
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Month Avg. Temp. 400 lb 600 lb 800 lb 600 lb 800 lb 1000 lb 1200 lb
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(�F) - - - - - - - gallons per head per day - - - - - - - - - -
January 36 3.5 5.0 6.0 5.5 7.0 8.5 9.5
February 40 4.0 5.5 6.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.0
March 50 4.5 6.0 7.0 6.5 8.0 9.5 10.5
April 64 5.5 7.0 8.5 8.0 9.5 11.0 12.5
May 73 6.0 8.0 9.5 9.0 11.0 13.0 14.5
June 78 6.5 8.5 10.0 9.5 12.0 14.0 16.0
July 90 9.5 13.0 15.0 14.5 17.5 20.5 23.0
August 88 9.0 12.0 14.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 22.5
September 78 6.5 8.5 10.0 9.5 12.0 14.0 16.0
October 68 5.5 7.5 9.0 8.5 10.0 12.0 14.0
November 52 4.5 6.0 7.0 6.5 8.0 10.0 10.5
December 38 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.5 9.5
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Adapted from GPE-1400, Water Requirements for Beef Cattle.
Table 3. Water consumption estimates for beef cattle based on thermal environment and
dry matter intake.
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Thermal
Environment Water Requirements
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>95�F 8 to 15 pounds of water per pound of DM intake
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77 to 95�F 4 to 10 pounds of water per pound of DM intake
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59 to 77�F 3 to 5 pounds of water per pound of DM intake (young
and lactating animals require 10 to 50% more water.)
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29 to 59�F 2 to 4 pounds of water per pound of DM intake
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Less than 29�F 2 to 3 pounds water per pound of DM intake (increases of
50 to 100% occur with a rise in ambient temperature
following a period of very cold temperatures, e.g. a rise
from -5� to 30�F.)
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Adapted from Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals,
1981, NRC.
Table 4. Daily water requirements of sheep.
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Class of Animal Gallons/Day
---------------------------------
Rams 2
Dry Ewes 2
Ewes with Lambs 3
5-20 pound Lambs 0.1 to 0.3
Feeder Lambs 1.5
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
Adapted from MWPS-3, Sheep Housing and Equipment Handbook.
Table 5. Water consumption of dairy cattle.a
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Class of Cattle Age or Condition Gallons Per Dayb
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- - - - - - - - Drinking Water Only - - - - - - - -
Holstein Calves 1 month 1.3 to 2.0
Holstein Calves 2 months 1.5 to 2.4
Holstein Calves 3 months 2.1 to 2.8
Holstein Calves 4 months 3.0 to 3.5
Holstein Heifers 5 months 3.8 to 4.6
Holstein Heifers 15 to 18 months 5.9 to 7.1
Holstein Heifers 18 to 24 months 7.3 to 9.6
Jersey Cows 30 lbs milk/day 13.0 to 15.5
Guernsey Cows 30 lbs milk/day 13.8 to 16.0
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, 30 lbs milk/day 14.5 to 17.0
and Holstein Cows
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, 50 lbs milk/day 24.0 to 27.0
and Holstein Cows
Dry Cows Pregnant, 6 to 9 months 9.0 to 13.0
- - - Water Intake From Feed and Drinking Water - - -
Milk Cows 4.5 to 5.0 lbs/lb milk produced daily
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a Adapted from Dairy Reference Manual, Pennsylvania State University.
b Consumption at air temperatures of 50 to 80�F, intake depends upon water
content of the forage ration. Higher levels apply to an all hay ration. One gallon of
water weighs 8.34 pounds. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds.
Table 6. Water intake for various classes of swine.
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Class Gallons/Day
----------------------------
25 lb Pig 0.5
60 lb Pig 1.5
100 lb Pig 1.75
200 lb Pig 2.5
Gestating Sows 4.5
Sow Plus Litter 6.0
Nonpregnant Gilts 3.2
Pregnant Gilts 5.5
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Table 7. Water requirements of various classes of horses.
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Estimated
Class Water Consumption
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(gal/day)
Maintenance, 1100 lbs, thermoneutral environment 6-8 gallons
Maintenance, 1100 lbs, warm environment 8-15 gallons
Lactating Mare, 1100 lbs 10-15 gallons
Working Horse, 1100 lbs, moderate work 10-12 gallons
Working Horse, 1100 lbs, moderate work, warm environment 12-18 gallons
Weanling, 650 lbs, thermoneutral environment 6-8 gallons
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Adapted from Lawrence (1998).
Limiting water intake can depress animal performance more quickly and drastically than any
other nutrient deficiency. Domesticated animals can live about 60 days without food, but
only seven days without water. Hearing and sight are impaired without water.
Signs of dehydration
Signs of dehydration or lack of water are tightening of the skin, loss of weight, and
drying of mucous membranes and eyes. In cattle, the eyes will appear sunken and dull.
Dehydration in lactating dairy animals results in near cessation of milk production.
One way to check for dehydration in the horse is by skin folds. Pull the skin and hold
a moment. Release and count the seconds until the fold disappears. On a dehydrated horse,
the skin will stand for several seconds.
Weather conditions may affect water intake and lead to problems such as urinary calculi
(waterbelly). Cold weather may reduce water intake, which reduces water flow through the
bladder and kidneys. This reduced water flow allows kidney stones to form. When desirable
weather returns, water intake increases and urinary calculi problems are seen, because the
stones have become too big to pass through the urethra, primarily in males. Any factor
that reduces water intake can be a contributing factor to urinary calculi. Hard water does
not cause urinary calculi problems but may be a factor if the hardness effects water
palatability.
Temperature
Avoid watering systems which allow the water to get too hot or to freeze. Drinkable
water is usually between 40� and 65� F. Steers that have access to cool drinking water
will gain .3 to .4 pounds more per day than those drinking warm water. Occasionally check
waterers with heaters to detect a "runaway" (a heating element which is not
working properly). Dip a thermometer into the water, but do not allow it to rest on the
bottom. Touching the heated bottom of the pan can result in recording a higher temperature
than the actual water temperature. Check the temperature over several cold days. Water
temperatures of at least 40� F should minimize mechanical problems and maintain animal
performance.
Insulate waterers to reduce problems with water freezing and keep electric costs down
in North Dakota winters. Make sure the insulation inside the waterer is still in good
condition. Conserve heat by caulking the base of the automatic waterer and seal the access
door with weather proof tape. Reducing wind exposure on the waterer with a windbreak can
also reduce electrical costs.
Extra external insulation may be added to some automatic waterers. Surround the
external surface with 2 inches or more of Styrofoam. Place � -inch plywood over the
Styrofoam. Put galvanized steel on the top part of the Styrofoam-plywood pieces and angle
iron on the vertical edges. Wrap this external insulation with some -inch steel cable to
keep it in place.
Stray voltage in a self-heating trough can reduce water consumption and thus reduce
feed intake. Shut off the electricity to automatic waterers and check the inside for
rodent nests or other malfunctions which may be causing the stray current. Make sure the
connections are dry and there is a clean, tight ground. Remember to use caution when
working with electrical connections.
Access
Cows given free access to water will produce more milk and more butterfat than cows
allowed to drink only twice a day. The same animal will consume different levels of water
at different physiological states. For example, a pregnant or lactating animal will
consume more than an non-pregnant, non-lactating animal.
In some cases, it may be necessary to regulate access to water. Horses that are hot
from strenuous exercise should not have free access to water. Unlimited access to water by
hot horses can lead to colic, laminitis, and/or exertional rhabdomyolysis (tying up). They
should be allowed only a few sips every three to five minutes until they cool down.
If swine on a high energy diet are deprived of water (such as can occur during power
outages), and then allowed free access to water (power is restored), they may die from
salt poisoning. Salt poisoning is also known as cerebral edema. Swine should be given
access to water sparingly until fully rehydrated. Prognosis for swine making a full
recovery from salt poisoning is very guarded.
Nutrients in Diet
Increasing the salt concentration or the protein level of the diet stimulates increased
water intake in all species because of the increase in urine volume necessary for
excretion of salt and urea. Studies with poultry have shown an increase in water
consumption due to increases in fat, protein, salt, or potassium in the diet. Feeds high
in crude fiber, such as roughages, will require more water for ingestion than feeds low in
crude fiber, like barley and corn.
Stress
Reduced water consumption can be a sign of sickness or other stressors. Special
considerations may be needed for valuable animals. Newly arrived animals may refuse water
at first due to differences in palatability, so water intake in newly received cattle
should be carefully monitored to make sure there are no signs of dehydration. Allowing
animals to become accustomed to the new water supply gradually by mixing water from old
and new sources is often not practical or even possible. Mixing small amounts of molasses
with water sources can hide differences in taste.
Have water available during low activity times during the day. Consumption of water and
feed can be reduced when there is a lot of activity which diverts the animals' attention.
Allowing waterers to run over for the first few days may help cattle acclimate to drinking
from fountains or new water sources, since the sound of running water will draw animals to
the waterer. In addition, waterers should be placed in the fence line, since newly
received cattle tend to pace back and forth along the fence.
Composition of Water
Water quality and quantity may affect feed consumption and animal health. Low quality
water will normally result in reduced water and feed consumption. Absolutely pure water is
not found in nature. Actually, deionized-distilled (pure) water is undesirable for
livestock. Certain salts and gases in solution make water more palatable if not present in
excess.
Substances which may reduce palatability of water include various salts. Salts may be
toxic at high levels. Substances which are toxic without much effect on palatability
include nitrates and fluorine, as well as salts of various heavy metals. Other materials
which may effect palatability or toxicity include pathogenic microorganisms, hydrocarbons,
oily substances, pesticides, and many industrial chemicals which sometimes pollute water
supplies.
Contamination of water sources can occur when a hose is placed where it can become
submerged when filling an animal watering tank. If the tank fills over the outlet of the
hose, and the hose or faucet has automatic back siphoning, the entire water system may
then become contaminated by impurities or poisonous solutions with the loss of water
pressure.
Cleanliness
All water troughs should be cleaned frequently. Livestock should never be forced to
drink dirty or contaminated water. Stale water can cause reduced water consumption. Even
when clean water is available, animals may continue to consume dirty water if it is
available.
Dirty water is a host for disease organisms. Disease can spread rapidly if animals
drink from the same trough, so sick animals should be isolated from the trough and the
trough cleaned and disinfected. A good disinfectant is dilute bleach solution after the
trough has been thoroughly cleaned. Sprinkling baking soda into the fountain periodically
may reduce algae growth. Tip tanks are sometimes installed in larger dairy freestall barns
to simplify cleaning.
Have an elevated base around automatic waterers. Make the base wide enough so animals
can easily put their front legs on it when they are drinking, but not their hind legs.
Animals will not normally place only their hind legs on this base and therefore will not
defecate in the water. Placement and height of the base are the key to avoiding fecal
contamination. Make the surface rough so animals will not slip.
Water Quality
If there is a question of water quality, it should be tested. The following chemical
properties should be considered when evaluating the quality of water for livestock.
Salinity
Salinity refers to salt dissolved in water and is expressed as parts per million (ppm)
or as milligrams per liter (mg/L). The State Health Laboratory (Bismarck) and the NDSU
Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Fargo) conduct salinity tests. The expression
"total dissolved solids" (TDS) is often used to denote the level of water
salinity.
Salts commonly present include carbonate, bicarbonates, sulfates, nitrates, chlorides,
phosphates, and fluorides. Highly mineralized waters (high solids) do not have much effect
on health as long as there are no objectionable effects from specific ions, such as
sulfate, and as long as normal amounts of water are consumed. One gram of sulfate per
liter (1000 ppm) may result in scours. High levels of sulfate in the water may also reduce
copper availability in the diet. In North Dakota, well water high in TDS is often high in
sulfates. The limiting health concern is often sulfate, because the acceptable sulfate
level will be exceeded before TDS levels are high enough to be a concern.
Salts, such as sodium chloride, change the electrolyte balance and intracellular
pressure in the body, producing a form of dehydration. Salts also place a strain on the
kidneys. Excess fluoride causes degeneration of the teeth.
High salt concentrations that are less than toxic may actually cause an increase in
water consumption. Animals may refuse to drink high saline water for many days, followed
by a period when they drink a large amount. They may then become sick or die. The
tolerance of animals to salts in water depends on factors such as water requirements,
species, age, physiological condition, season of the year, and salt content of the total
diet, as well as the water. Animals have the ability to adapt to saline water. However,
abrupt changes from water with low salt to water with high salt concentrations may cause
harm while gradual changes do not.
Table 8 gives the level of mineral content that either makes the water taste too bad to
drink or causes a detrimental effect on health. It ap-pears to make little difference
wheth-er the total quantity of dissolved salts or dissolved solids is made up of a single
salt or a number of different salts. Table 9 shows recommendations for various animal
species in relation to dissolved solids content.
Table 8. Recommendations for livestock water use based on Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
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TDS Comments
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(ppm or mg/L)
Less than 3,000 Usually satisfactory for most livestock.
3,000-5,000 May not cause adverse effects to adult livestock.
Growing/young livestock could be effected by looseness
or poor feed conversion. At levels near 5,000 ppm the
water is unacceptable for poultry.
5,000-7,000 Should not be used for pregnant or lactating females.
Usually laxative and may result in reduced water intake.
7,000-10,000 Do not use for swine. Do not use for pregnant or
lactating ruminants or horses.
10,000 or more May cause brain damage or death.
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Table 9. Recommended levels of Dissolved Solids for various animal species.
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Dissolved Solids (ppm)
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Species Excellent Good Fair Poor Limit
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Humans 0-800 800-1,600 1,600-2,500 2,500-4,000 5,000
Horses:
- Working 0-1,000 1,000-2,000 2,000-3,000 3,000-5,000 6,000
- Others 0-1,000 1,000-2,000 2,000-4,000 4,000-6,000 10,000
Cattle 0-1,000 1,000-2,000 2,000-4,000 4,000-6,000 10,000
Sheep 0-1,000 1,000-3,000 3,000-6,000 6,000-10,000 15,000
Poultry and
Chickens 0-1,000 1,000-2,000 2,000-3,000 3,000-5,000 6,000
Swine (young pigs and market pigs appear to tolerate less than cattle)
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Sulfates
Animals can become acclimated to the sulfates in water. Consider diluting high sulfate
water with low sulfate water for newly arrived animals. Use the same procedure for pigs at
weaning time. The sulfate recommendation for calves is for less than 500 ppm (167 ppm
sulfur as sulfate). For adult cattle the recommendation is less than 1,000 ppm (333 ppm
sulfur as sulfate). Caution is required in evaluating sulfate levels in water because of
interactions with copper and molybdenum and the inhibiting effect compounds such as sodium
fluoride have on sulfate absorption for the digestive tract. In addition, high levels of
sulfates may also contribute to an increased incidence of polioencephelomalacia (PEM), a
brain disorder found in cattle. If copper deficiency problems are suspected, water sources
should be analyzed for sulfates to determine if high sulfate levels are contributing to
the problem.
Other minerals
Water hardness is actually caused by calcium and magnesium. Softening the water through
exchange of calcium and magnesium with sodium may cause problems if water is already high
in salinity.
When there is a significant amount of calcium in water, it should be considered as a
part of the total mineral intake. However, many mineral salts are relatively insoluble and
pass through the body without being absorbed. Even in hard water, the amount of mineral
ingested from the water is not likely to be substantial.
Nitrates
Water can also be contaminated with nitrates. For more information regarding nitrates
and nitrate poisoning, please refer to Nitrate Poisoning of Livestock (V-839 Revised).
pH
Water pH denotes either alkalinity or acidity. High saline water is not the same as
alkaline water. A pH of 7 would be neutral; over 7 indicates alkalinity; below 7
designates acidity. Most North Dakota waters are mildly alkaline with a pH value between 7
and 8. Acidic water (pH below 7) has not been found to occur in most of North Dakota;
however, there are some reports of acidic water in the western part of the state in
proximity to lignite veins. Various degrees of alkalinity have been reported in the state.
High alkalinity may cause digestive upsets, laxative action, poor feed conversion, and
reduced water and/or feed intake.
Microbiological properties
There are many microorganisms in our water supply. Most are quite harmless but some do
cause animal health problems.
Coliform counts below 50 per milliliter of water are safe for all cattle. Other
possible contaminants include coccidia, staph, strep, virus, lepto, etc.
Green scum that builds up in livestock drinking troughs and tanks is algae. It cannot
grow without sunlight. Some blue-green algae are toxic. No good method exists to predict
whether toxins will be produced. Livestock behavior should be monitored closely during
periods of heavy algal blooms. Copper sulfate (CuSO4) or other commercial
copper-containing products, often called bluestone, will kill the algae for a period of
several months. In troughs or small tanks, a safe dosage is one level teaspoon of copper
sulfate per 1,500 gallons of water. One ounce will treat 8,000 gallons of water. One pound
per acre-foot is a good estimate for larger bodies of water. Generally, treatment is done
only when algae growth is heavy or if a toxicity prob-lem occurs. Hold livestock off the
treated water source for at least 24 hours.
In treating large stock tanks or ponds, drag a sack containing the correct amount of
copper sulfate behind a boat, pacing yourself to cover the heavily infested areas first.
If the tank contains catfish (not scaled fish), treat half of the pond at a time and allow
the fish to move to untreated water. Occasionally putting baking soda in water troughs
will help prevent algae growth. Proper cleaning of automatic waterers can be quite
effective in preventing algae growth. Consider the use of a disinfectant with poultry
waterers. Table 10 lists the recommended treatment levels for adding copper sulfate to
water to reduce algae growth. Management in the watersheds above stock ponds that reduces
runoff and erosion will help reduce nutrient impacts needed for algal growth.
Table 10. Recommended levels of copper sulfate needed to treat water for algae.
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Amount Water Water
of CuSO4 Volume Volume
Used for 1 ppm for � ppm
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- - - - gallons - - - -
1 oz 7,800 15,000
8 oz 62,500 125,000
1 lb 125,000 250,000
8 lb 1,000,000 2,000,000
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The desired level of CuSO4 is 0.2 to 0.4 ppm, which is equivalent
to 0.65 to 1.3 oz per 10,000 gallons of water or 1.4 to 2.8 pounds
per acre foot of water.
Signs of blue green algae poisoning are diarrhea, lack of coordination, labored breathing,
and death. During recovery, unpigmented skin may slough off. A suggested treatment for
algae afflicted animals is large quantities of medical-grade charcoal and mineral oil,
given orally. These are given to try to prevent any further absorption of the toxins by
the affected animals. Contact your veterinarian for more information and assistance.
For additional information on algae poisoning please refer to NDSU Extension Service
publication V-1136, Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae) Poisoning.
Microorganisms can enter a well which has improper surface protection. A well is
situated improperly if it receives drainage from livestock pens or a manure storage
structure. Cracked well casings may also allow bacteria to enter the water supply. Cracks
in cisterns can also allow access to microorganisms. Contamination might occur from a
heavy spring rainfall. Protect the surface of wells from contamination by rodents.
Other chemicals
Many other chemicals may be found in water, some of which could be detrimental to
livestock production. Safe levels of herbicides and pesticides in water for animals have
not been determined. Table 11 gives guidelines for humans. These appear to be reasonable
for livestock.
Table 11. Maximum tolerable levels of various pesticides in water for humans.
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Maximum
Pesticide Concentration
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mg/L
Chlordane 0.002
Endrin 0.002
Hephtachlor epoxide 0.0002
Hephtachlor 0.0004
Lindane 0.0002
Methoxychlor 0.04
Toxaphene 0.003
2,4-D 0.07
2,4,5-T 0.07
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Pesticides can enter a ground water or surface water supply from run-off, drift, and
accidental spills. Provide adequate drainage around the water supply. Wells should be
located on elevated ground to prevent surface run-off in to the well. Fish are much more
sensitive to pesticides than other livestock.
Table 12 lists the safe levels of potentially toxic nutrients and contaminants in water
for cattle. These should be analyzed only when there is good reason to suspect their
presence at excessive levels.
Table 12. Safe levels of potentially toxic nutrients and contaminants in water for
livestock.
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Element ppm
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Aluminum 5.0
Arsenic 0.2
Boron 5.0
Cadmium 0.05
Chromium 1.0
Cobalt 1.0
Copper 0.5
Fluorine 2.0
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.01
Nickel 1.0
Nitrate-Nitrogen 100.0
Nitrite-Nitrogen 10.0
Selenium 0.05
Sulfate 1,000.0
Vanadium 0.1
Zinc 25.0
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Adapted from Shirley et al. (1974).
Water testing requirements for dairies
Water used for cleaning equipment in the milking barn and parlor must be tested
annually. Contact the North Dakota Department of Agriculture-Dairy Division, regarding
referrals on water quality and inspection requirements.
Water requirements are influenced by several factors,
including
rate of gain
pregnancy
lactation
activity
type of diet
feed intake
environmental temperature |
AS-954, July 1999
|
